Javascript the definitive guide 8th edition pdf download

Javascript the definitive guide 8th edition pdf download

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 · Literature for the self-taught AI practitioner! ��. Contribute to camoverride/lit development by creating an account on GitHub Download JavaScript: The Definitive Guide PDF full book. Access full book title JavaScript: The Definitive Guide by David Flanagan. Download full books in PDF and EPUB format JavaScript Tools and Extensions Linting with ESLint JavaScript Formatting with Prettier Unit Testing with Jest Package Management with npm Code Bundling PDF Online Janson's History of Art: The Western Tradition, Volume I (8th Edition) by Penelope J.E. Davies, Walter B. Denny, Frima Fox Hofrichter, Joseph F. Jacobs, Ann S. Roberts, David Download JavaScript_ the Definitive Guide, 7th Edition (True PDF) - SoftArchive - Free download as PDF File .pdf), Text File .txt) or read online for free. Un. Un. Open navigation ... read more

iterator and Symbol. asyncIterator hasInstance toStringTag species isConcatSpreadable toPrimitive unscopables JavaScript is the programming language of the web and is used by more software developers today than any other programmi. SQL: Become A Master In SQLSQL is a program that is going to make it to where you can get the career of your dreams or e. Author : David Flanagan Publisher: ISBN: Category : Languages : en Pages : 92 View Book Description For web developers and other programmers interested in using JavaScript, this bestselling book provides the most comprehensive JavaScript reference section on the market. The seventh edition represents a significant update, with new material for ECMAScript ES8 , and new chapters on language-specific features. Author : Preston So Publisher: "O'Reilly Media, Inc. Used by Nike, Costa Coffee, and other companies worldwide, Gatsby is emerging as one of the key technologies in the Jamstack JavaScript, APIs, and markup ecosystem.

With this comprehensive guide, you'll learn how to architect, build, and deploy Gatsby sites independently or with CMSs, commerce systems, and other data sources. Author Preston So begins by showing you how to set up a Gatsby site from scratch. From there, youâ?? ll learn ways to use Gatsbyâ?? s declarative rendering and GraphQL API, build complex offline-enabled sites, and continuously deploy Gatsby sites on a variety of platforms, including Gatsby Cloud. Author : Chuck Musciano Publisher: "O'Reilly Media, Inc. lucid, in-depth descriptions of the behavior of every HTML tag on every major browser and platform, plus enough dry humor to make the book a pleasure to read. Truly a definitive guide, the book combines a unique balance of tutorial material with a comprehensive reference that even the most experienced web professionals keep close at hand.

From basic syntax and semantics to guidelines aimed at helping you develop your own distinctive style, this classic is all you need to become fluent in the language of web design. The new sixth edition guides you through every element of HTML and XHTML in detail, explaining how each element works and how it interacts with other elements. You'll also find detailed discussions of CSS Cascading Style Sheets , which is intricately related to web page development. The most all-inclusive, up-to-date book on these languages available, this edition covers HTML 4. Other topics include the newer initiatives in XHTML XForms, XFrames, and modularization and the essentials of XML for advanced readers. You'll learn how to: Use style sheets to control your document's appearance Work with programmatically generated HTML Create tables, both simple and complex Use frames to coordinate sets of documents Design and build interactive forms and dynamic documents Insert images, sound files, video, Java applets, and JavaScript programs Create documents that look good on a variety of browsers The authors apply a natural learning approach that uses straightforward language and plenty of examples.

Throughout the book, they offer suggestions for style and composition to help you decide how to best use HTML and XHTML to accomplish a variety of tasks. You'll learn what works and what doesn't, and what makes sense to those who view your web pages and what might be confusing. Answering a question by citing this book and quoting example xiv Preface code does not require permission. If you use the code from this book, I appreciate, but do not require, attribution. An attribution usually includes the title, author, publisher, and ISBN. Copyright David Flanagan, Thanks also to my technical reviewers: Zachary Kessin, who reviewed many of the chapters in Part I, and Raffaele Cecco, who reviewed Chapter 19 and the material in Chapter In this era of effortless electronic communication, it is impossible to keep track of all those who influence and inform us.

Editors, reviewers, and contributors to previous editions of this book have included: Andrew Schulman, Angelo Sirigos, Aristotle Pagaltzis, Brendan Eich, Christian Heilmann, Dan Shafer, Dave C. Mitchell, Deb Cameron, Douglas Crockford, Dr. Tankred Hirschmann, Dylan Schiemann, Frank Willison, Geoff Stearns, Herman Venter, Jay Hodges, Jeff Yates, Joseph Kesselman, Ken Cooper, Larry Sullivan, Lynn Rollins, Neil Berkman, Nick Thompson, Norris Boyd, Paula Ferguson, Peter-Paul Koch, Philippe Le Hegaret, Richard Yaker, Sanders Kleinfeld, Scott Furman, Scott Issacs, Shon Katzenberger, Terry Allen, Todd Ditchendorf, Vidur Apparao, and Waldemar Horwat. This edition of the book is substantially rewritten and kept me away from my family for many late nights.

My love to them and my thanks for putting up with my absences. com , March xvi Preface CHAPTER 1 Introduction to JavaScript JavaScript is the programming language of the Web. The overwhelming majority of modern websites use JavaScript, and all modern web browsers—on desktops, game consoles, tablets, and smart phones—include JavaScript interpreters, making JavaScript the most ubiquitous programming language in history. JavaScript is part of the triad of technologies that all Web developers must learn: HTML to specify the content of web pages, CSS to specify the presentation of web pages, and JavaScript to specify the behavior of web pages. This book will help you master the language. If you are already familiar with other programming languages, it may help you to know that JavaScript is a high-level, dynamic, untyped interpreted programming language that is well-suited to object-oriented and functional programming styles.

JavaScript derives its syntax from Java, its first-class functions from Scheme, and its prototypebased inheritance from Self. But you do not need to know any of those languages, or be familiar with those terms, to use this book and learn JavaScript. Except for a superficial syntactic resemblance, JavaScript is completely different from the Java programming language. And JavaScript has long since outgrown its scripting-language roots to become a robust and efficient general-purpose language. The latest version of the language see the sidebar defines new features for serious large-scale software development. For the last decade, all web browsers have implemented version 3 of the ECMAScript standard and there has really been no need to think about version numbers: the language standard was stable and browser implementations of the language were, for the most part, interoperable.

Recently, an important new version of the language has been defined as ECMAScript version 5 and, at the time of this writing, browsers are beginning to implement it. This book covers all the new features of ECMAScript 5 as well as all the long-standing features of ECMAScript 3. Version 4 of ECMAScript was under development for years, but proved to be too ambitious and was never released. To be useful, every language must have a platform or standard library or API of functions for performing things like basic input and output. The core JavaScript language defines a minimal API for working with text, arrays, dates, and regular expressions but does not include any input or output functionality. Part I of this book covers the language itself and its minimal built-in API. Part IV is the reference section for client-side JavaScript. This book covers low-level fundamentals first, and then builds on those to more advanced and higher-level abstractions. The chapters are intended to be read more or less in order.

But learning a new programming language is never a linear process, and describing a language is not linear either: each language feature is related to other features and this book is full of cross-references—sometimes backward and sometimes forward to material you have not yet read. This chapter makes a quick first pass through the core language and the client-side API, introducing key features that will make it easier to understand the in-depth treatment in the chapters that follow. To do that, you need a JavaScript interpreter.

Often, you can call up a console with a keystroke like F12 or CtrlShift-J. These console tools often appear as panes at the top or bottom of the browser window, but some allow you to open them as separate windows as pictured in Figure , which is often quite convenient. This is a particularly easy way to play around with JavaScript, and I recommend that you use it as you read this book. There is a simple console API that is portably implemented by modern browsers. You can use the function console. log to display text on the console. This is often surprisingly helpful while debugging, and some of the examples in this book even in the core language section use console. log to perform simple output. A similar but more intrusive way to display output or debugging messages is by passing a string of text to the alert function, which displays it in a modal dialog box.

Introduction to JavaScript 3 Figure The Firebug debugging console for Firefox 1. After this introductory chapter, we dive into JavaScript at the lowest level: Chapter 2, Lexical Structure, explains things like JavaScript comments, semicolons, and the Unicode character set. Chapter 3, Types, Values, and Variables, starts to get more interesting: it explains JavaScript variables and the values you can assign to those variables. Two other very important types that JavaScript programs can manipulate are objects and arrays. or []: book. An expression is a phrase of JavaScript that can be evaluated to produce a value.

The use of. and [] to refer to the value of an object property or array element is an expression, for example. x - points[0]. They evaluate to true or false. is OR! inverts a boolean value If the phrases of JavaScript are expressions, then the full sentences are statements, which are the topic of Chapter 5, Statements. In the code above, the lines that end with semicolons are statements. There is actually a lot of overlap between statements and expressions. The other broad category of statement is control structures, such as conditionals and loops.

Examples are below, after we cover functions. A function is a named and parametrized block of JavaScript code that you define once, and can then invoke over and over again. sqrt computes the square root }; points. Chapter 9, Classes and Modules, covers object-oriented programming in JavaScript in detail, with lots of examples, and is one of the longest chapters in the book. Here is a very simple example that demonstrates how to define a JavaScript class to represent 2D geometric points. is invoked. Chapter 9 is really the climax of Part I, and the chapters that follow wrap up some loose ends and bring our exploration of the core language to a close. Chapter 11, JavaScript Subsets and Extensions, covers subsets and extensions of core JavaScript. Finally, before we plunge into client-side JavaScript in web browsers, Chapter 12, Server-Side JavaScript, introduces two ways to use JavaScript outside of web browsers. Chapter 13, JavaScript in Web Browsers, is the first chapter of Part II and it explains in detail how to put JavaScript to work in web browsers.

Chapter 14, The Window Object, explains techniques for scripting the web browser and covers some important global functions of client-side JavaScript. setTimeout moveon, ; Note that the client-side example code shown in this section comes in longer snippets than the core language examples earlier in the chapter. These examples are not designed to be typed into a Firebug or similar console window. Instead you can embed them in an HTML file and try them out by loading them in your web browser. The code above, for instance, works as a stand-alone HTML file.

Chapter 15, Scripting Documents, gets down to the real business of client-side JavaScript, scripting HTML document content. It shows you how to select particular HTML elements from within a document, how to set HTML attributes of those elements, how to alter the content of those elements, and how to add new elements to the document. Chapter 16, Scripting CSS, shows how you can use JavaScript with the CSS styles that define the presentation of that content. className e. An event handler is a JavaScript function that we register with the browser and the browser invokes when some specified type of event occurs. The event of interest might be a mouse click or a key press or on a smart phone, it might be a two-finger gesture of some sort.

Or an event handler might be triggered when the browser finishes loading a document, when the user resizes the browser window, or when the user enters data into an HTML form element. Chapter 17, Handling Events, explains how you can define and register event handlers and how the browser invokes them when events occur. Suppose that you had typed in the debug and hide functions from above and saved them in files named debug. js and hide. The APIs described in those chapters are somewhat complex and, until recently, riddled with browser incompatibilities. For these reasons, many or most client-side JavaScript programmers choose to use a client-side library or framework to simplify their basic programming tasks. The most popular such library is jQuery, the subject of Chapter 19, The jQuery Library.

jQuery defines a clever and easy-to-use API for scripting document content, presentation, and behavior. It has been thoroughly tested and works in all major browsers, including old ones like IE6. appendTo document. The four chapters of Part II described so far have all really been about web pages. Four more chapters shift gears to focus on web applications. These chapters are not about using web browsers to display documents with scriptable content, presentation, and 1. Chapter 18, Scripted HTTP, explains how to make scripted HTTP requests with JavaScript—a kind of networking API. Chapter 20, Client-Side Storage, describes mechanisms for storing data—and even entire applications—on the client side for use in future browsing sessions. Chapter 21, Scripted Media and Graphics, covers a clientside API for drawing arbitrary graphics in an HTML tag. And, finally, Chapter 22, HTML5 APIs, covers an assortment of new web app APIs specified by or affiliated with HTML5.

Networking, storage, graphics: these are OS-type services being provided by the web browser, defining a new cross-platform application environment. If you are targeting browsers that support these new APIs, it is an exciting time to be a client-side JavaScript programmer. There are no code samples from these final four chapters here, but the extended example below uses some of these new APIs. Example lists the code for the simple loan payment calculator application pictured in Figure Figure A loan calculator web application It is worth reading through Example carefully. How to get user input from form input elements. How to set the HTML content of document elements. How to store data in the browser. How to make scripted HTTP requests.

How to draw graphics with the element. Example These elements have ids like "interest" and "years". These ids are used in the JavaScript code that follows the table. Note that some of the input elements define "onchange" or "onclick" event handlers. These specify strings of JavaScript code to be executed when the user enters data or clicks. Assume it is all valid. toFixed 2 ; total. toFixed 2 ; totalinterest. value, apr. value, years. value, zipcode. Clear any previously displayed output. It does work over HTTP, however. function save amount, apr, years, zipcode { if window. getElementById "amount". getElementById "apr". getElementById "years". getElementById "zipcode". But if the service existed, this function would work with it. getElementById "lenders" ; if! if arguments. lineTo paymentToX payments , amountToY 0 ; g. closePath ; g. fill ; g. This sounds circular for numbers, booleans, null, and undefined: there is no other way that they could be compared.

Again, however, it is not so obvious for strings. If two distinct string values are compared, JavaScript treats them as equal if, and only if, they have the same length and if the character at each index is the same. Objects are different than primitives. Using this terminology, object values are references, and we say that objects are compared by reference: two object values are the same if and only if they refer to the same underlying object. Now b refers to the same array. Mutate the array referred to by variable b. As you can see from the code above, assigning an object or array to a variable simply assigns the reference: it does not create a new copy of the object. If you want to make a new copy of an object or array, you must explicitly copy the properties of the object or the elements of the array. This example demonstrates using a for loop §5.

This code defines a function to compare two arrays: function equalArrays a,b { if a. The same is true for other types: if JavaScript wants a string, it will convert whatever value you give it to a string. If JavaScript wants a number, it will try to convert the value you give it to a number or to NaN if it cannot perform a meaningful conversion. Bold entries in the table highlight conversions that you may find surprising. Empty cells indicate that no conversion is necessary and none is performed. Table JavaScript type conversions Value Converted to: String Number Boolean Object undefined "undefined" NaN false throws TypeError null "null" 0 false throws TypeError true "true" 1 new Boolean true false "false" 0 new Boolean false "" empty string 0 false new String "" "1.

Conversion to boolean was already discussed in §3. Conversion to strings is well-defined for all primitive values. Conversion to numbers is just a little trickier. Strings that can be parsed as numbers convert to those numbers. Leading and trailing spaces are allowed, but any leading or trailing nonspace characters that are not part of a numeric literal cause the string-to-number conversion to produce NaN. Some numeric conversions may seem surprising: true converts to 1, and false and the empty string "" convert to 0.

Primitive-to-object conversions are straightforward: primitive values convert to their wrapper object §3. String converts to a number before comparing. Boolean converts to number before comparing. Both operands convert to numbers before comparing. Keep in mind that convertibility of one value to another does not imply equality of those two values. If undefined is used where a boolean value is expected, for example, it will convert to false. JavaScript operators and statements expect values of various types, and perform conversions to those types. The simplest way to perform an explicit type conversion is to use the Boolean , Number , String , or Object functions.

toString true new Number 3 Note that any value other than null or undefined has a toString method and the result of this method is usually the same as that returned by the String function. Also note that Table shows a TypeError if you attempt to convert null or undefined to an object. The Object function does not throw an exception in this case: instead it simply returns a newly created empty object. Certain JavaScript operators perform implicit type conversions, and are sometimes used for the purposes of type conversion. And the unary! operator converts its operand to a boolean and negates it. Note double! Formatting and parsing numbers are common tasks in computer programs and JavaScript has specialized functions and methods that provide more precise control over number-to-string and string-to-number conversions. The toString method defined by the Number class accepts an optional argument that specifies a radix, or base, for the conversion.

If you do not specify the argument, the conversion is done in base However, you can also convert numbers in other bases between 2 and The Number class defines three methods for these kinds of numberto-string conversions. toFixed converts a number to a string with a specified number of digits after the decimal point. It never uses exponential notation. toExponential converts a number to a string using exponential notation, with one digit before the decimal point and a specified number of digits after the decimal point which means that the number of significant digits is one larger than the value you specify. toPreci sion converts a number to a string with the number of significant digits you specify. It uses exponential notation if the number of significant digits is not large enough to display the entire integer portion of the number. Note that all three methods round the trailing digits or pad with zeros as appropriate. toFixed 0 ; n. toFixed 2 ; n. toFixed 5 ; n. toExponential 1 ; n.

toExponential 3 ; n. toPrecision 4 ; n. toPrecision 7 ; n. That function only works for base integers, and does not allow trailing characters that are not part of the literal. Legal values are between 2 and This is so even for wrapper objects: new Boolean false is an object rather than a primitive value, and so it converts to true. Object-to-string and object-to-number conversions are performed by invoking a method of the object to be converted. This is complicated by the fact that JavaScript objects have two different methods that perform conversions, and it is also complicated by some special cases described below. Note that the string and number conversion rules described here apply only to native objects. Host objects defined by web browsers, for example can convert to numbers and strings according to their own algorithms.

All objects inherit two conversion methods. The first is called toString , and its job is to return a string representation of the object. Because the behavior is unspecified, you should never use parseInt to parse numbers with leading zeros, unless you explicitly specify the radix to be used! In ECMAScript 5, parseInt only parses octal numbers if you explicitly pass 8 as the second argument. parseInt parses only integers, while parseFloat parses both integers and floating-point numbers. If the first nonspace character is not part of a valid numeric literal, they return NaN: Many classes define more specific versions of the toString method.

The toString method of the Array class, for example, converts each array element to a string and joins the resulting strings together with commas in between. The toString method of the Function class returns an implementation-defined representation of a function. In practice, implementations usually convert user-defined functions to strings of JavaScript source code. The Date class defines a toString method that returns a humanreadable and JavaScript-parsable date and time string. The RegExp class defines a toString method that converts RegExp objects to a string that looks like a RegExp literal: [1,2,3]. The job of this method is less well-defined: it is supposed to convert an object to a primitive value that represents the object, if any such primitive value exists. Objects are compound values, and most objects cannot really be represented by a single primitive value, so the default valueOf method simply returns the object itself rather than returning a primitive.

Wrapper classes define valueOf methods that return the wrapped primitive value. Arrays, functions, and regular expressions simply inherit the default method. Calling valueOf for instances of these types simply returns the object itself. Do note, however, that there are some special cases in which JavaScript performs a different object-to-primitive conversion. These special cases are covered at the end of this section. If it returns a primitive value, JavaScript converts that value to a string if it is not already a string and returns the result of that conversion. Note that primitive-to-string conversions are all well-defined in Table If the method exists, JavaScript calls it.

If the return value is a primitive, JavaScript converts that value to a string if it is not already and returns the converted value. The details of this object-to-number conversion explain why an empty array converts to the number 0 and why an array with a single element may also convert to a number. Arrays inherit the default valueOf method that returns an object rather than a primitive value, so array-to-number conversion relies on the toString method. Empty arrays convert to the empty string. And the empty string converts to the number 0.

An array with a single element converts to the same string that that one element does. If an array contains a single number, that number is converted to a string, and then back to a number. If either of its operands is an object, JavaScript converts the object using a special objectto-primitive conversion rather than the object-to-number conversion used by the other arithmetic operators. If asked to compare an object with a primitive value, it converts the object using the object-to-primitive conversion. The Date class is the only predefined core JavaScript type that defines meaningful conversions to both strings and numbers.

The object-to-primitive conversion is basically an object-to-number conversion valueof first for all objects that are not dates, and an object-to-string conversion toString first for Date objects. The conversion is not exactly the same as those explained above, however: the primitive value returned by valueOf or toString is used directly without being forced to a number or string. The string-to-primitive conversions. Other operators convert more explicitly to a specified type and do not have any special case for Date objects. The - operator, for example, converts its operands to numbers. A JavaScript variable can hold a value of any type. If the repeated declaration has an initializer, it acts as if it were simply an assignment statement.

If you attempt to read the value of an undeclared variable, JavaScript generates an error. In ECMAScript 5 strict mode §5. Historically, however, and in non-strict mode, if you assign a value to an undeclared variable, JavaScript actually creates that variable as a property of the global object, and it works much like but not exactly the same as, see §3. This means that you can get away with leaving your global variables undeclared. This is a bad habit and a source of bugs, however, and you should always declare your variables with var. A global variable has global scope; it is defined everywhere in your JavaScript code. On the other hand, variables declared within a function are defined only within the body of the function. They are local variables and have local scope. Function parameters also count as local variables and are defined only within the body of the function. Within the body of a function, a local variable takes precedence over a global variable with the same name.

We just changed the global variable. Function definitions can be nested. Each function has its own local scope, so it is possible to have several nested layers of local scope. This is called block scope, and JavaScript does not have it. Instead, JavaScript uses 3. Curiously, this means that variables are even visible before they are declared. Because of the rules of function scope, however, this is not what happens. The local variable is defined throughout the body of the function, which means the global variable by the same name is hidden throughout the function. Although the local variable is defined throughout, it is not actually initialized until the var statement is executed.

If you use var to declare the variable, the property that is created is nonconfigurable see §6. Creates a deletable property of the global object. This does the same thing. There is no such requirement for local variables, but you can imagine local variables as the properties of an object associated with each function invocation. The precise nature of these objects that hold local variables is an implementation detail that need not concern us. The notion that these local variable objects exist, however, is an important one, and it is developed further in the next section. Global variables are defined throughout the program. Local variables are defined throughout the function in which they are declared, and also within any functions nested within that function.

If we think of local variables as properties of some kind of implementation-defined object, then there is another way to think about variable scope. Every chunk of JavaScript code global code or functions has a scope chain associated with it. When JavaScript needs to look up the value of a variable x a process called variable resolution , it starts by looking at the first object in the chain. If that object has a property named x, the value of that property is used. If the first object does not have a property named x, JavaScript continues the search with the next object in the chain. If the second object does not have a property named x, the search moves on to the next 3. This technique makes their source code accurately reflect the true scope of the variables.

object, and so on. If x is not a property of any of the objects in the scope chain, then x is not in scope for that code, and a ReferenceError occurs. In top-level JavaScript code i. In a non-nested function, the scope chain consists of two objects. In a nested function, the scope chain has three or more objects. It is important to understand how this chain of objects is created. When a function is defined, it stores the scope chain then in effect. When that function is invoked, it creates a new object to store its local variables, and adds that new object to the stored scope chain to create a new, longer, chain that represents the scope for that function invocation. This becomes more interesting for nested functions because each time the outer function is called, the inner function is defined again. Since the scope chain differs on each invocation of the outer function, the inner function will be subtly different each time it is defined—the code of the inner function will be identical on each invocation of the outer function, but the scope chain associated with that code will be different.

This notion of a scope chain is helpful for understanding the with statement §5. A constant embedded literally in your program is a very simple kind of expression. A variable name is also a simple expression that evaluates to whatever value has been assigned to that variable. Complex expressions are built from simpler expressions. An array access expression, for example, consists of one expression that evaluates to an array followed by an open square bracket, an expression that evaluates to an integer, and a close square bracket. This new, more complex expression evaluates to the value stored at the specified index of the specified array. Similarly, a function invocation expression consists of one expression that evaluates to a function object and zero or more additional expressions that are used as the arguments to the function.

The most common way to build a complex expression out of simpler expressions is with an operator. An operator combines the values of its operands usually two of them in some way and evaluates to a new value. Primary expressions in JavaScript are constant or literal values, certain language keywords, and variable references. They look like these: 1. String literals were documented in §3. The regular expression literal syntax was introduced in §3. Unlike the other keywords, this is not a constant—it evaluates to different values in different places in the program. The this keyword is used in object-oriented programming. Within the body of a method, this evaluates to the object on which the method was invoked. See §4. When any identifier appears by itself in a program, JavaScript assumes it is a variable and looks up its value. If no variable with that name exists, the expression evaluates to the undefined value. In the strict mode of ECMAScript 5, however, an attempt to evaluate a nonexistent variable throws a ReferenceError instead.

An array initializer is a comma-separated list of expressions contained within square brackets. The value of an array initializer is a newly created array. This means that the value of an array initializer expression may be different each time it is evaluated. Undefined elements can be included in an array literal by simply omitting a value between commas. x, y: p. y }, 'lowerRight': { x: p. Functions can also be defined using a function statement rather than a function expression. Complete details on function definition are in Chapter 8. JavaScript defines two syntaxes for property access: expression. identifier expression [ expression ] The first style of property access is an expression followed by a period and an identifier.

The expression specifies the object, and the identifier specifies the name of the desired property. The second style of property access follows the first expression the object or array with another expression in square brackets. This second expression specifies the name of the desired property of the index of the desired array element. z o["x"] a[1] a[2]["1"] a[0]. y 1: property x of object o 4: element at index 1 of expression a 6: element at index 1 of expression a[2] 1: property x of expression a[0] With either type of property access expression, the expression before the. or [ is first evaluated. If the value is null or undefined, the expression throws a TypeError, since these are the two JavaScript values that cannot have properties. If the value is not an object or array , it is converted to one see §3. If the object expression is followed by a dot and an identifier, the value of the property named by that identifier is looked up and becomes the overall value of the expression.

If the object expression is followed by another expression in square brackets, that second expression is evaluated and converted to a string. The overall value of the expression is then the value of the property named by that string. In either case, if the named property does not exist, then the value of the property access expression is undefined. identifier syntax is the simpler of the two property access options, but notice that it can only be used when the property you want to access has a name that is a legal identifier, and when you know then name when you write the program. If the property name is a reserved word or includes spaces or punctuation characters, or when it is a number for arrays , you must use the square bracket notation. Square brackets are also used when the property name is not static but is itself the result of a computation see §6. Objects and their properties are covered in detail in Chapter 6, and arrays and their elements are covered in Chapter 7.

It starts with a function expression that identifies the function to be called. The function expression is followed by an open parenthesis, a comma-separated list of zero or more argument expressions, and a close parenthesis. max is the function; x, y and z are the arguments. sort is the function; there are no arguments. When an invocation expression is evaluated, the function expression is evaluated first, and then the argument expressions are evaluated to produce a list of argument values. If the value of the function expression is not a callable object, a TypeError is thrown.

All functions are callable. Host objects may also be callable even if they are not functions. This distinction is explored in §8. Next, the argument values are assigned, in order, to the parameter names specified when the function was defined, and then the body of the function is executed.

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